The little information that we have on the breeding ecology of the extinct Stewart Is snipe (Coenocorypha aucklandica iredalei) is based on books published by Herbert Guthrie-Smith and Major Robert Wilson following visits to Big South Cape I in 1923 and 1931 respectively. Wilson was a member of a party including Edgar Stead, who collected 4 clutches of eggs now in Canterbury Museum. We summarise the published information on breeding ecology of the Stewart Is snipe, and provide new information based on previously unpublished photographs of nests, and notes made by members of the 1923 and 1931 visits to Big South Cape I, including Edgar Stead’s unpublished diary. Stewart Is snipe appear to have had a different chick-rearing strategy from all other Coenocorypha snipe, with pairs jointly caring for a single chick. Guthrie-Smith’s 1923 record of courtship-feeding was the 1st reported instance for the entire family Scolopacidae.
The doubly-labelled water technique was used to measure energy expenditure in 20 free-living kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) on Codfish and Little Barrier Islands. Daily energy expenditure (DEE) averaged 799 kj/d, equivalent to 1.4 x BMR (basal metabolic rate), the lowest value recorded for any adult wild bird. DEE was higher in males than females, and was greater on Codfish Island than on Little Barrier Island. Supplementary food taken from hoppers by kakapo supplied about half of their DEE; a few individuals apparently obtained virtually all their energy needs from supplementary food. Use of food from hoppers did not affect energy expenditure directly, but apparently did so via long-term elevation of body mass. Supplementary feeding, particularly of energy-dense items such as nuts and seeds, greatly depressed body-water turnover rates. Some implications of the often high level of supplementary food taken by kakapo are discussed. Adjusting the supplementary feeding programme to meet more precisely the needs of individual birds would probably improve the overall nutrition of the surviving kakapo population.
The kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) is a critically endangered, flightless parrot endemic to New Zealand. In 2002, 24 chicks were raised on Codfish Island (Whenua Hou) to increase the total population by 37% to 86 individuals. Data on hatching and fledging of kakapo chicks allowed comparisons to be made between males and females, and between broods of one and two chicks, in hatching weight, growth, weight at fledging, and age of fledging. There was no significant difference in hatching weight between sexes or brood sizes but males were significantly heavier at 60 days old and at fledging. Chicks from broods of one grew more slowly and fledged earlier at lighter weights than chicks from broods of two. Early fledging of solitary chicks might be in response to a lack of mental and physical stimulation.
Conservation and management of kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) has spanned more than a century and has cost many millions of dollars. Government policy goals have supported these efforts throughout this long period but decisions made have not always reflected an optimal approach to achieving them. Decisions made have influenced not only whether kakapo will recover, but also the time span to recovery and its cost, which have impacted on the ability to meet broader biodiversity goals. The establishment, in 1987, of a single conservation agency, administering both the land and the species contained thereon, significantly changed the way biodiversity management was delivered in New Zealand and created enormous potential for integrated conservation outcomes. Despite this, decision-making for managers of threatened species conservation programmes has become more complex as an increasing number of endangered species compete for limited resources. Using kakapo as an example, historic and recent recovery decisions are evaluated and the need for a decision-making framework to improve threatened species recovery and overall biodiversity maintenance is discussed.
Foraging deficiencies and supplementary feeding play critical roles in kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) breeding biology and conservation. We present a framework for the analysis of complex nutritional data (called the geometric framework – GF) which may contribute further understanding of the relationships between natural foods, supplementary feeding and kakapo reproduction. We outline the basic concepts of the approach, and illustrate its application using data for the protein, lipid and calcium content of a natural food (green fruits of rimu Dacrydium cupressinum) and a supplementary feed (“muesli”). We provide some pointers for the broader application of GF to the problem of kakapo supplementary feeding, and close with a brief review of a literature which suggests that calcium might be a key limiting factor in kakapo reproduction. We hypothesise that supplementary foods with low macronutrient:calcium ratios are likely to be most effective in supporting increased reproduction.
A growing literature indicates that genetic factors have a significant impact on the persistence of populations and hence play an important role in species recovery. Here, I review the role of genetic research in the recovery program of the critically endangered kakapo (Strigops habroptilus). By using three examples of how genetics has guided kakapo managers (molecular sexing, quantification of genetic diversity and confirmation of paternity from known matings), I highlight the important contribution genetics has made to kakapo recovery. I also explore three new avenues of research (genetic diversity at genes for disease resistance, molecular ageing, and genetic similarity and hatching success), all of which may have important implications for future conservation management of kakapo. As such, this review demonstrates that genetic research is an integral part of kakapo recovery.
The natural diet of the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) is exclusively herbivorous. The bird breeds synchronously with the heavy fruiting or “masting” of certain plant species, including rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), at intervals of 2 – 5 years, and did so in 2002 on Codfish Island (Whenua Hou) in southern New Zealand. Crop contents of kakapo chicks of 10 – 30 and 31 – 43 days of age, and samples of rimu fruit (entire fruit, red aril, green aril and seed) were collected and chemically analysed for dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, fatty acids, amino acids, fibre, simple sugars and minerals. The crop content samples contained predominantly carbohydrates (76 – 81 % by dry wt.), crude protein (7 – 13 %) and fatty acids (6 – 7 %). Entire rimu fruit contained 7.2 % crude protein, 10.9 % fatty acids, and 78 % carbohydrate predominantly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The red aril, green aril and seed nutrient composition were similar with the exception of the seed fatty acid profile. There was a large degree of similarity in the nutritional composition of the entire rimu fruit and the crop contents, supporting field observations of the time that female kakapo were feeding almost exclusively entire rimu fruit to their chicks. The nutrient profiles provide the first detailed descriptions of the diet of growing kakapo chicks which can guide the development of supplements and artificial rearing diets for this species. The diet of kakapo chicks up to 60 days of age appears to have a low concentration of essential nutrients and high indigestible matter content when compared with other species, consistent with specialised anatomical features and foraging behaviour of this parrot.