A stable evidence-based taxonomy is a critical requirement for the effective future conservation of the albatrosses. Recently published partial molecular phylogenies are in broad agreement with respect to the structure of the evolutionary tree for most named taxa, but the analytical methods used to create them have been seriously criticised and they must be considered provisional at best. A further problem is that their authors reach startlingly different conclusions regarding the numbers of taxa which should be recognised as species; 13 vs. 24. Here, we attempt to resolve this situation by supplying full length mitochondrial cytochrome b data presently missing for 2 taxa, carrying out thorough phylogenetic analyses meeting the requirements of published prescriptions and taking into full account other sources of new molecular data and contemporary opinions on albatross nomenclature and the status of taxa. We provide general support for the published trees and critically evaluate claims regarding how many taxa represent full species. Some genetic distances between pairs of taxa are so small that considerable weight of alternative evidence is required to support any decision leading to a recommendation to split them. We note that the empirical boundary between consensus and controversy falls at or around 1% DNA sequence divergence and further that few, if any, commentators recognise taxa that are separated by less than 0.1% as being valid species.
Conservation management of threatened species (single-species management) is likely to confer benefits to non-target native species, although there are few studies. We examined the relationship between the relative abundance of New Zealand pigeon/kereru (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae), tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), grey warbler (Gerygone igata), fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa) and tomtit (Petroica macrocephala), and intensity of mammalian pest control conducted to protect the endangered North Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) in the Hunua Ranges, 40 km south-east of Auckland, New Zealand. Study areas were subjected to either high intensity (Kokako Management Area, KMA) or low intensity (Milne Stream and Rata Ridge) pest control, and we established 17 monitoring stations per study area and conducted 17 x 5-minute point counts of forest birds in all 3 areas. Abundances of kereru, tui, tomtit, were significantly higher in the KMA. Our findings suggest that single-species management targeted at kokako also benefits some non-target native birds. The contribution of single species conservation management to overall ecosystem integrity is not well understood, and further research is needed to improve the ecological value and cost effectiveness of such management techniques.
The kaka (Nestor meridionalis) is an endemic parrot of New Zealand, and is nationally endangered. Conservation of the species is primarily dependent on intensive control of introduced mammalian nest predators, particularly stoats (Mustela erminea) and brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Breeding was studied in 4 sites: Waipapa (1996-2002) and Whirinaki (1998-2002) in the North Island, and Rotoiti (1997-2002) and Eglinton (1998-2002) in the South Island. In total, 145 nests were found. The proportion of radio-tagged females that bred at a site in a given year varied from 0-100%, with most breeding occurring in years of mast-fruiting or seeding by key food tree species. Kaka nested mainly in trunk cavities of live canopy or emergent trees. Egg-laying occurred from Oct to Mar, but differed between years within sites by up to a month, and was usually 2 months later at the most southern site (Eglinton) than elsewhere. Mean egg length was 41.5 mm, mean maximum breadth was 31.5 mm, and fresh egg mass was 22.6 g or 5.65% of female body weight. Clutches consisted of 1-8 eggs, most being of 3, 4 or 5 eggs (mode = 5), and mean clutch size did not differ significantly between the sites. The female alone carried out incubation, with her mate feeding her 8-12 times a day. Overall, hatching success varied from 39-66% between sites, but it also varied between breeding seasons at each site, in part due to the level of control of introduced predatory mammals. Kaka nestlings were covered in white down at hatching, and left the nest when c. 70 days old. Even when 11-20 days old, they were left unattended at night for 20-70% of time and by day for 50-85% of time. Twice females were filmed aggressively attempting to evict stoats that had killed broods in their nest cavities. Breeding productivity (proportion of eggs that produced fledglings) in the 4 study sites varied from 19% at Whirinaki (no control of predatory mammals) to 53% at Eglinton (intense control of predatory mammals). The implications of the breeding biology of the kaka are discussed in relation to conservation management of the species.
Bird nests often contain objects produced and manipulated by other animals, including human rubbish. The function, if any, of these items remains unclear, and it is unknown whether they might serve a signalling role to increase the conspicuousness of the nest lining or contribute to its crypsis. We located several nests of the introduced song thrush (Turdus philomelos) in New Zealand containing discarded cigarette butts. These items were embedded into the dried mud-matrix of the nest and appeared visually inconspicuous to the human observer. However, human and avian visual sensitivities are dramatically different. We used full-spectrum reflectance spectrophotometry, combined with perceptual modelling of the avian visual system to assess the contrast between mud lining, garbage, and the colours of thrush eggs. Our analyses confirmed that, when perceived by birds, cigarette butts were similar in appearance to the nest lining and showed sharp contrast with the eggs. We suggest that cigarette butts form an opportunistic structural component of the song thrush nest. It remains to be determined whether human-made objects in song thrush nests serve anti-predator or an olfactory signalling function. This study illustrates the application of avian perceptual modelling to test signalling based hypotheses for the extended phenotype of birds, including nest architecture.
Abstract Stewart Island/Rakiura, the third largest island in New Zealand, has not had the large-scale forest clearance and introduction of mustelids that has had deleterious impacts on populations of native forest birds on the North and South Islands. However, Stewart Island has had 3 rat species, feral cats and possums introduced, which are known bird predators. It is likely that these species have had serious consequences for the native birds there. As no review of forest birds had been done within the past 80 years, an evaluation of changes in the reported abundance of native bird species on Stewart Island over the past 100 years was carried out, which revealed relatively recent declines and extinctions. Brown teal, rifleman, mohua, South Island kokako, falcon, Stewart Island weka and probably yellow-crown parakeets, have gone extinct on Stewart Island within the past 50 years. Birds showing dramatic declines in the past 100 years include kereru, kaka, kakapo, and robin. Populations of native birds on Stewart Island showed similar patterns of extinctions and declines as the South Island despite fewer agents of decline.
Pterodroma occulta was described by Imber and Tennyson in 2001 and tentatively named Vanuatu petrel. The first specimens of this bird were collected in Jan 1927, east of the island Mere Lava in Vanuatu (then New Hebrides), but their breeding grounds have remained unknown. After several exploratory visits to the Banks Islands I discovered a breeding colony of Vanuatu petrels on Vanua Lava in Feb 2009. Statements that this species breeds on Mere Lava were not substantiated.
A pair of barn owls (Tyto alba) was found breeding in Kaitaia farmland in Apr 2008, and observations on their nesting biology and behaviour were made over a period of 24 months. Another injured young barn owl, possibly from an earlier breeding attempt, was found with the pair at the time of their discovery, and brought into captivity. The nest tree was climbed and 2 dead owlets recovered, but the pair re-nested and 3 young successfully fledged. Pellets and prey remains were collected and their diet is described through pellet analysis. This is the 1st record of wild barn owls breeding in New Zealand.
A new subspecies of Coenocorypha snipe from Campbell I is described and named. This bird was discovered on rat-free 19 ha Jacquemart I in 1997, and had probably been confined there as a breeding species for about 170 years. Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) were eradicated from 11,268 ha Campbell I in 2001, and snipe soon began to recolonise the main island from Jacquemart I 1 km offshore. Twelve adults and 5 chicks were caught on Campbell I in Jan 2006, and 1 nest was found. Genetic analysis of blood samples, and measurements and plumage descriptions from these birds revealed that they were best regarded as a subspecies of Coenocorypha aucklandica, a species here recognised as confined to the subantarctic Auckland, Antipodes and Campbell Is, and specifically distinct from the 2 other extant Coenocorypha snipes (Snares I snipe C. huegeli and Chatham I snipe C. pusilla).