This paper surveys molecular and morphological work on parrots over the last 20 years and we show how it has re-shaped popular and scientific views regarding endemic New Zealand taxa. Recent research has shown the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) is not closely related to apparent counterparts in Australia but in fact is a member of an ancient and exclusively New Zealand clade together with the kea and the kaka (Nestor spp.). Superficially similar Australian nocturnal taxa, the night parrot (Pezoporus occidentalis) and the ground parrot (P. wallicus) are members of an altogether different family. At the same time, the parrots as a worldwide group have more or less retained their sense of Gondwanan ancestry, but with an increased focus on Australasia as a centre of origin. The previous paradigm explaining contemporary parrot diversity that suggested evolution was brought about exclusively by vicariant speciation has been supplanted with a synergistic model of dispersal and vicariance following the demonstration that multiple dispersal events have occurred, for example from Australia across the chain of Indian Ocean Islands to Africa.
New Zealand conservation managers have a distinguished history in translocating forest birds, shorebirds and waterfowl to achieve conservation gains. Although New Zealand is a centre of seabird diversity, and many species are threatened and/or have suffered human-induced range reductions, until recently there had been few attempts to translocate seabirds. Reluctance to attempt translocations was due largely to the perceived risk of dispersal, and the expectation that birds would return to their source colony. Translocations have now been attempted with 10 species of burrow-nesting petrels in New Zealand, with chicks moved before they were likely to have developed awareness of their natal colony location, and hand-fed until they fledged. The translocation of 240 fairy prion chicks from Takapourewa (Stephens I) to Mana I in 2002-04 was one of few petrel translocation studies where systematic searches for returning translocated chicks at both the release site and the source colony were undertaken, and where a sample of marked control chicks allowed comparison of natural return rates with those of translocated chicks. Twenty translocated chicks returned to Mana I during 2004-12, and 25 were recovered at the source colony during 2005-08. Nearly identical proportions (c. 20%) of translocated and control chicks were recovered, with higher recovery rates at the release site for each successive cohort. Birds appeared to develop their homing ability at different ages, and there was no apparent maximum age after which chicks should not be translocated. Exposing chicks to the source colony surface in daylight did not increase the risk of them returning to the source colony.
Translocations (deliberate movement and release of wildlife) have been of crucial importance in the management of New Zealand threatened birds, and as part of site restoration projects. We review attempts to translocate New Zealand birds for conservation reasons since 1863. Following an early pulse from 1895-1908, there was concerted and increasing effort (both in the number of translocations and the number of taxa translocated) and success since the early 1960s. Sixty- eight taxa (55 species) of New Zealand birds have been translocated in over 1100 separate releases, with new populations of 50 taxa (41 species) successfully established. Translocations of 9 further taxa (7 further species) are in progress. Overall, 61% of New Zealand’s extant endemic waterfowl, shorebird and landbird taxa have been translocated (51% of the total successfully, with an additional 4% in progress). Five taxa exist solely as translocated populations (little spotted kiwi Apteryx owenii, buff weka Gallirallus australis hectori, kakapo Strigops habroptilus, South Island saddleback Philesturnus carunculatus and black robin Petroica traversi), and 10 further taxa would be confined to single wild populations but for successful translocations. Most translocations were undertaken within historical ranges, however, 6 taxa have been established beyond their historical ranges, with attempts for 2 further taxa in progress.